The EU energy trilemma in transition

The policy framework of the energy trilemma, which aims to balance the security of supply, energy equity and environmental sustainability, has become a defining paradigm in global and EU energy governance. Rooted in the sustainable development principles of the Brundtland Report and advanced by the World Energy Council’s Energy Trilemma Index, the framework has offered policymakers a compass for navigating competing objectives in energy law and policy. Within the EU, its legal expression lies in Article 194(1)(a)-(d) TFEU, which closely maps onto the trilemma’s core pillars while emphasising market integration and network interconnection as distinctive EU priorities. Yet, the trilemma is increasingly tested by accelerating crises: climate urgency, geopolitical disruptions, technological transformation and deepening social inequalities. This paper examines whether the trilemma, while valuable for structuring trade-offs, remains adequate for the complexity of contemporary energy regulation. It argues that expanding its scope to include resilience and justice is essential for ensuring that EU energy governance remains adaptive, inclusive, and future-proof.