Hybrid and Composite Scaffolds Based on Extracellular Matrices for Cartilage Tissue Engineering

Cartilage consists of chondrocytes and a special extracellular matrix (ECM) having unique biochemical, biophysical, and biomechanical properties that play a critical role in the proliferation and differentiation of cells inherent to cartilage functions. Cartilage tissue engineering (CTE) requires recreating these microenvironmental physicochemical conditions to lead to chondrocyte differentiation from stem cells. ECM-derived hybrid scaffolds based on chondroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid, collagen, and cartilage ECM analogs provide environments conducive to stem cell proliferation. In this review, we describe hybrid scaffolds based on these four cartilage ECM derivatives; we also categorize these scaffolds based on the methods used for their preparation. The use of hybrid scaffolds is increasing in CTE to address the complexity of cartilage tissue. Thus, a comprehensive review on the topic should be a useful guide for future research. Impact Statement Scaffolds fabricated from extracellular matrix (ECM) derivatives are composed of conducive structures for cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation, but generally do not have proper mechanical properties and load-bearing capacity. In contrast, scaffolds based on synthetic biomaterials demonstrate appropriate mechanical strength, but the absence of desirable biological properties is one of their main disadvantages. To integrate mechanical strength and biological cues, these ECM derivatives can be conjugated with synthetic biomaterials. Hence, hybrid scaffolds comprising both advantages of synthetic polymers and ECM derivatives can be considered a robust vehicle for tissue engineering applications.