Hotspots of human impact on threatened terrestrial vertebrates

Conserving threatened species requires identifying where across their range they are being impacted by threats, yet this remains unresolved across most of Earth. Here, we present a global analysis of cumulative human impacts on threatened species by using a spatial framework that jointly considers the co-occurrence of eight threatening processes and the distribution of 5,457 terrestrial vertebrates. We show that impacts to species are widespread, occurring across 84% of Earth's surface, and identify hotspots of impacted species richness and coolspots of unimpacted species richness. Almost one-quarter of assessed species are impacted across >90% of their distribution, and approximately 7% are impacted across their entire range. These results foreshadow localised extirpations and potential extinctions without conservation action. The spatial framework developed here offers a tool for defining strategies to directly mitigate the threats driving species' declines, providing essential information for future national and global conservation agendas.Author summary The biggest drivers of global biodiversity loss are hunting, harvesting, and the conversion of natural habitats for agriculture, urbanisation, and other industrial activity. However, our understanding of where these threats' actually impact sensitive species is extremely limited across Earth. Here, we map the distribution of threats within the known ranges of 5,457 terrestrial birds, mammals, and amphibians globally. We map only those threats within a species range that are known to specifically endanger that species. We show that threats are extensive across the majority of species' ranges, severely limiting the area within which species can survive. Concerningly, 1,237 species (almost one-quarter of those assessed) are impacted by threats across >90% of their distribution, and 395 species are impacted by threats across their entire range. These species will almost certainly face extinction without conservation intervention to remove threats. We identify global hotspots of impacted species richness and also coolspots' that act as refuges from threats, providing essential information for conservation planning and action.