Forks in the road to e-mobility: An evaluation of instrument interaction in national policy mixes in northwest Europe

M. Dijk; E. Iversen; A. Klitkou; R. Kemp; S. Bolwig; M. Borup; P. Møllgaard

doi:10.3390/en13020475

Forks in the road to e-mobility: An evaluation of instrument interaction in national policy mixes in northwest Europe

M. Dijk^*, E. Iversen, A. Klitkou, R. Kemp, S. Bolwig, M. Borup, P. Møllgaard

^*Corresponding author for this work

Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › Academic › peer-review

Abstract

This paper evaluates how policy shaped the emergence of electric mobility in three countries, Norway, the Netherlands and Denmark, between 2010 and 2015. Whereas previous studies have looked at the effects of separate policy instruments, this paper gives insights in the interaction effects of instruments on the diffusion of battery electric cars between five policy areas. Based on analysis of synergetic, contradictory and pre-conditional effects, we find that an effective policy mix includes: fiscal incentives that mirror the actual carbon footprint of the respective vehicles; non-fiscal demand-side incentives; centrally financed and/or coordinated charging infrastructure; clarity regarding the choice of technology that will be supported. Moreover, development of a domestic, e-mobility-related industry and a high share of renewable energy strengthens the legitimization of e-mobility support. The findings help designing policy mixes in the transition to electric mobility.

Original language	English
Article number	475
Number of pages	20
Journal	Energies
Volume	13
Issue number	2
DOIs	https://doi.org/10.3390/en13020475
Publication status	Published - Jan 2020

JEL classifications

q01 - Sustainable Development
o38 - Technological Change: Government Policy
r48 - Transportation Systems: Government Pricing and Policy

Keywords

Carbon footprint
Computer science
Conditional effects
Coordinated charging
E mobilities
E-mobility
Electric vehicles
Energy management
Interaction effect
National policies
Policy evaluation
Policy instruments
Policy mixes
Renewable energies
Transition policy
electric vehicles
policy evaluation
CLIMATE
ENERGY
transition policy
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
FRAMEWORK
e-mobility
LOCK-IN
policy mixes

Access to Document

10.3390/en13020475Licence: CC BY

Cite this

@article{69c8dc36cfab4c6b894a2f1a6ffda455,

title = "Forks in the road to e-mobility: An evaluation of instrument interaction in national policy mixes in northwest Europe",

abstract = "This paper evaluates how policy shaped the emergence of electric mobility in three countries, Norway, the Netherlands and Denmark, between 2010 and 2015. Whereas previous studies have looked at the effects of separate policy instruments, this paper gives insights in the interaction effects of instruments on the diffusion of battery electric cars between five policy areas. Based on analysis of synergetic, contradictory and pre-conditional effects, we find that an effective policy mix includes: fiscal incentives that mirror the actual carbon footprint of the respective vehicles; non-fiscal demand-side incentives; centrally financed and/or coordinated charging infrastructure; clarity regarding the choice of technology that will be supported. Moreover, development of a domestic, e-mobility-related industry and a high share of renewable energy strengthens the legitimization of e-mobility support. The findings help designing policy mixes in the transition to electric mobility.",

keywords = "Carbon footprint, Computer science, Conditional effects, Coordinated charging, E mobilities, E-mobility, Electric vehicles, Energy management, Interaction effect, National policies, Policy evaluation, Policy instruments, Policy mixes, Renewable energies, Transition policy, electric vehicles, policy evaluation, CLIMATE, ENERGY, transition policy, ELECTRIC VEHICLES, FRAMEWORK, e-mobility, LOCK-IN, policy mixes",

author = "M. Dijk and E. Iversen and A. Klitkou and R. Kemp and S. Bolwig and M. Borup and P. M{\o}llgaard",

note = "Correspondence Address: Dijk, M.; School of Business and Economics, Maastricht UniversityNetherlands; email: [email protected] Funding details: Nordic Energy Research, NER Funding details: 308371 Funding text 1: Funding: The Dutch part of this research received funding from European Union{\textquoteright}s FP7 under grant agreement No. 308371 (project named “Policy Options for a Resource Efficient Economy” (POLFREE). The Norwegian and the Danish part of this research received funding from Nordic Energy Research under the project “TOP-NEST Technology Opportunities in Nordic Energy System Transitions” (project number 42). References: Althaus, H.-J., Modern individual mobility (2011) Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., 17, pp. 267-269; (2018) Hvor Klimavenlige Er Elbiler Sammenlignet Med Benzin- Og Dieselbiler, , www.klimaraadet.dk, Danish Council for Climate Change: Copenhagen, Denmark, Available online: accessed on 1 July 2019; Geels, F.W., (2002) Understanding the Dynamics of Technological Transitions, , Ph.D. Thesis, Twente University, Enschede, The Netherlands; Rip, A., Kemp, R., Technological change (1998) Human Choice and Climate Change, pp. 327-399. , Rayner, S., Malone, E.L., Eds.; Battelle Press: Columbus, OH, USA; Cowan, R., Hulten, S., Escaping lock-in: The case of the electric vehicle (1996) Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang., 53, pp. 61-79; Klitkou, A., Bolwig, S., Hansen, T., Wessberg, N., The role of lock-in mechanisms in transition processes: The case of energy for road transport (2015) Environ. Innov. Soc. Transit., 16, pp. 22-37; Dijk, M., Wells, P., Kemp, R., Will the momentum of the electric car last? Testing an hypothesis on disruptive innovation (2016) Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang., 105, pp. 77-88; Sierzchula, W., Bakker, S., Maat, K., van Wee, B., The influence of financial incentives and other socio-economic factors on electric vehicle adoption (2014) Energy Policy, 68, pp. 183-194; Wesseling, J.H., Explaining variance in national electric vehicle policies (2016) Environ. Innov. Soc. Transit., 21, pp. 28-38; Flanagan, K., Uyarra, E., Laranja, M., Reconceptualising the {\textquoteleft}policy mix{\textquoteright} for innovation (2011) Res. Policy, 40, pp. 702-713; Veugelers, R., Which policy instruments to induce clean innovating? (2012) Res. Policy, 41, pp. 1770-1778; Rogge, K.S., Reichardt, K., Policy mixes for sustainability transitions: An extended concept and framework for analysis (2016) Res. Policy, 45, pp. 1620-1635; Rogge, K.S., Kern, F., Howlett, M., Conceptual and empirical advances in analyzing policy mixes for energy transitions (2017) Energy Res. Soc. Sci., 33, pp. 1-10; Borr{\'a}s, S., Edquist, C., The choice of innovation policy instruments (2013) Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang., 80, pp. 1513-1522; Dijk, M.J., Backhaus, H., Wieser, R., Kemp Policies tackling the {\textquoteleft}web of constraints{\textquoteright} on resource efficient practices: The case of mobility (2019) Sustain. Sci. Pract. Policy, 15, pp. 62-81; Howlett, M., Rayner, J., Design principles for policy mixes: Cohesion and coherence in {\textquoteleft}New Governance Arrangements (2007) Policy Soc, 26, pp. 1-18; Kern, F., Howlett, M., Implementing transition management as policy reforms: A case study of the Dutch energy sector (2009) Policy Sci, 42, pp. 391-408; Nauwelaers, C., Boekholt, P., Mostert, B., Cunningham, P., Guy, K., Hofer, R., Rammer, C., (2009) Policy Mixes for R & D in Europe, , UNU-MERIT, University of Maastricht and United Nations University: Maastricht, The Netherlands; Oikonomou, V., Jepma, C., A framework on interactions of climate and energy policy instruments (2008) Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Chang., 13, pp. 131-156; Sorrell, S., Smith, A., Betz, R., Walz, R., Boemare, C., Quirion, P., Sijm, J., Haralampopoulos, D., (2003) Interaction in EU Climate Policy: Final Report, , SPRU: Brighton, UK; Painter, M., Central agencies and the coordination principle (1981) Aust. J. Public Adm., 40, pp. 265-280; Braun, D., Organising the political coordination of knowledge and innovation policies (2008) Sci. Public Policy, 35, pp. 227-239; Del R{\'i}o, P., Interactions between climate and energy policies: The case of Spain (2009) Clim. Policy, 9, pp. 119-138; Gunningham, N., Grabosky, P.N., Sinclair, D., (1998) Smart Regulation: Designing Environmental Policy, , Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK; Guerzoni, M., Raiteri, E., Demand-side vs. Supply-side technology policies: Hidden treatment and new empirical evidence on the policy mix (2015) Res. Policy, 44, pp. 726-747; Del R{\'i}o Gonz{\'a}lez, P., The interaction between emissions trading and renewable electricity support schemes: An overview of the literature (2006) Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Chang., 12, pp. 1363-1390; (2011) Interactions of Policies for Renewable Energy and Climate, , IEA. IEA: Paris, France; Antonioli, D., Borghesi, S., D{\textquoteright}Amato, A., Gilli, M., Mazzanti, M., Nicolli, F., Analysing the interactions of energy and climate policies in a broad policy {\textquoteleft}optimality{\textquoteright} framework: The Italian case study (2014) J. Integr. Environ. Sci., 11, pp. 205-224; Palmer, K., Paul, A., Woerman, M., Steinberg, D., Federal policies for renewable electricity: Impacts and interactions (2011) Energy Policy, 39, pp. 3975-3991; Kivimaa, P., Kangas, H.-L., Lazarevic, D., Client-oriented Evaluation of {\textquoteleft}Creative Destruction{\textquoteright} in Policy Mixes: Finnish policies on building energy efficiency transition (2017) Energy Res. Soc. Sci., 33, pp. 115-127; Albrecht, J., Arts, B., Climate policy convergence in Europe: An assessment based on national communications to the UNFCCC (2005) J. Eur. Public Policy, 12, pp. 885-902; Schaffrin, A., Sewerin, S., Seubert, S., Toward a comparative measure of climate policy output (2015) Policy Stud. J., 43, pp. 257-282; Givoni, M., Macmillen, J., Banister, D., Feitelson, E., From policy measures to policy packages (2013) Transp. Rev., 33, pp. 1-20; (2018) M{\aa}l Og Virkemidler P{\aa} Elbilomr{\aa}det I Udvalgte Lande, , www.klimaraadet.dk, Danish Council for Climate Change: Copenhagen, Denmark, Available online: accessed on 1 July 2019; Vasseur, V., (2014) A Sunny Future for Photovoltaic Systems in the Netherlands? An Analysis of the Role of Government and Users in the Diffusion of An Emerging Technology, , Ph.D. Thesis, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Christensen, T.B., Wells, P., Cipcigan, L., Can innovative business models overcome resistance to electric vehicles? Better Place and battery electric cars in Denmark (2012) Energy Policy, 48, pp. 498-505; McKinsey, (2014) Electric Vehicles in Europe: Gearing up for A New Phase? Report of Amsterdam Roundtables Foundation and McKinsey & Company, , McKinsey: Maastricht, The Netherlands; Kley, F., Wietschel, M., Dallinger, D., Evaluation of European electric vehicle support schemes (2012) Paving the Road to Sustainability: Governance and Innovation in Low-Carbon Vehicles, , Nilsson, M., Hillman, K., Rickne, A., Magnusson, T., Eds.; Routledge: London, UK; (2016) Excise Duty Tables January, , http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/index_en.htm, Available online: accessed on 18 February 2016; EU Energy Prices, , https://www.energy.eu/fuelprices/, Available online: accessed on 18 February 2016; Norway Gasoline Prices, , http://www.globalpetrolprices.com/Norway/gasoline_prices/, Available online: accessed on 18 February 2016; (2011) Elektrisch Rijden in De Versnelling: Plan Van Aanpak 2011–2015 [Electric Driving in Acceleration: Work Plan 2011–2015], , RVO. Netherlands Enterprise Agency/Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO): Utrecht, The Netherlands; (2012) Prosjektrapport: Etter 3 {\AA}r, , Transnova. Transnova: Oslo, Norway; (2016) Fors{\o}gsordning for Elbiler, , http://www.ens.dk/klima-co2/transport/elbiler/forsogsordning-elbiler, Available online: accessed on 18 February 2016; (2009) Handlingsplan for Elektrifisering Av Veitransport: Rapport Fra Ressursgruppe Nedsatt Av Samferdselsdepartementet, p. 52. , Handlingsplan. Samferdselsdepartementet: Oslo, Norway; (2015), www.gronnbil.no, Available online: accessed on 18 November 2015; https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/dec/25/norway-leads-way-electric-carsgreen-taxation-shift, Available online: accessed on 1 July 2018; (2018) Flere Elbiler P{\aa} De Danske Veje. Forslag Til Pejlem{\ae}rker Og Virkemidler Til Elektrificering Af Personbilerne, , www.klimaraadet.dk, Danish Council for Climate Change, Available online: accessed on 1 July 2019; Haugneland, P., Kvisle, H., Norwegian electric car user experiences (2015) Int. J. Automot. Technol. Manag., 15, pp. 194-221; Ekeland, A., The electric car success in Norway: A dead-end or a way forward for climate policy? (2015) Paper for the Colloque International Recherche & Regulation, , https://www.eiseverywhere.com, Paris. Available online: accessed on 12 June 2015; Kok, R., van der Linden, F., Smokers, R., Verbeek, M., (2014) Evaluatie Autogerelateerde Belastingen 2008–2013 En Vooruitblik Automarktontwikkelingen Tot 2020 [Evaluation of Car-Related Taxes 2008–2013) and Outlook Car Market Trends to 2020], , Report Commissioned by Ministry of Finance; Policy Research Corporation: Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Rodrik, D., Green industrial policy (2014) Oxf. Rev. Econ. Policy, 30, pp. 469-491; van der Beesen, P., Munnix, S., Reitsma, S., (2014) Verzilvering Verdienpotentieel Elektrisch Vervoer in Nederland [Cashing the Revenue Potential of Electric Transport in the Netherlands], , Netherlands Enterprise Agency/Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO): Utrecht, The Netherlands; (2014) Belastingkortingen Voor Zuinige Auto{\textquoteright}S: Afwegingen Voor Fiscaal Beleid [Tax Reduction for Fuel Efficient Cars: Trade-Offs for Fiscal Policy], , PBL. Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving: Den Haag, The Netherlands; Eurlings, C., van den Hoeven, M., (2009) Mobiliteitsbeleid [Mobility Policy], , Letter to Parliament; Ministry of Traffic & Water and Ministry of Economic Affairs: The Hague, The Netherlands; Wiebes, E., (2015) Autobrief 2, Letter to Pariament, , Ministry of Financial Affairs: The Hague, The Netherlands; Bakker, S., Maat, K., van Wee, B., Stakeholders expectations, interests, and strategies regarding the development and implementation of electric vehicles (2014) Transp. Res. A, 66, pp. 52-64; (2015) Forslag Til Lov Om {\AE}ndring Af Registreringsafgiftsloven, Br{\ae}ndstofforbrugsafgiftsloven Og Forskellige Andre Love, , DMT. Danish Ministry of Taxation: Copenhagen, Denmark; Borup, M., (2013) Electrical Mobility Case Study: Better Place–An Effort of Creating New Actor Roles and Infrastructure for Electric Car Mobility, p. 30. , TOP-NEST Working Paper; DTU: Lyngby, Denmark; (2015) Dk 2015: Smart Energy—Hovedrapport, , DE and Energinet. Danish Energy Association: Copenhagen, Denmark; (2014) Danskernes Syn P{\aa} Elbiler. The Survey Was Administered to A Representative Sample of 1002 Respondents, , www.danskelbilalliance.dk, Available online: accessed on 29 January 2014; (2013) Vejledning Til Beregning Af St{\o}tteberettigede Meromkostninger for Elbiler Og Ladeinfrastruktur, , Energistyrelsen. Energistyrelsen: K{\o}benhavn, Denmark; (2014) Alternative Drivstoff, Elbiler Og Nullutslippsteknologi, , https://www.regjeringen.no/no/tema/transport-og-kommunikasjon/veg_og_vegtrafikk/biler-oglavutslippsteknologi/id2076451/, Available online: accessed on 15 November 2017; Vergis, S., Turrentine, T.S., Fulton, L., Fulton, E., (2014) Plug-In Electric Vehicles: A Case Study of Seven Markets, ITS Research Report, p. 35. , Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California: Davis, CA, USA; (2015) European Electro-Mobility Observatory, , http://ev-observatory.eu/norway-logs-50000-ev-and-continues-incentives-up-to-2017/, Available online: accessed on 15 November 2017; Nordic, M., Survey results data files (2014) The Survey Was Conducted in 2014 by PFM Research Sweden on Behalf of Michelin and Included 1000 Respondents, , Michelin Nordic Oslo: Oslo, Norway; R{\o}ste, R., (2013) Value Chain Analysis of the Norwegian Electric Vehicles Market: Think A First-Mover, , TOP-NEST Project: Oslo, Norway; Jolly, D., Norway{\textquoteright}s electric embrace (2015) New York Times, , 19 October; For Renewable Energy Consumption and Generation Shares, , https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database, Available online: accessed on 13 April 2015; Hoogma, R., Kemp, R., Schot, J., Truffer, B., (2002) Experimenting for Sustainable Transport Experimenting for Sustainable Transport: The Approach of Strategic Niche Management, , Routledge: London, UK; New York, NY, USA",

year = "2020",

month = jan,

doi = "10.3390/en13020475",

language = "English",

volume = "13",

journal = "Energies",

issn = "1996-1073",

publisher = "Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI)",

number = "2",

}

TY - JOUR

T1 - Forks in the road to e-mobility

T2 - An evaluation of instrument interaction in national policy mixes in northwest Europe

AU - Dijk, M.

AU - Iversen, E.

AU - Klitkou, A.

AU - Kemp, R.

AU - Bolwig, S.

AU - Borup, M.

AU - Møllgaard, P.

N1 - Correspondence Address: Dijk, M.; School of Business and Economics, Maastricht UniversityNetherlands; email: [email protected] Funding details: Nordic Energy Research, NER Funding details: 308371 Funding text 1: Funding: The Dutch part of this research received funding from European Union’s FP7 under grant agreement No. 308371 (project named “Policy Options for a Resource Efficient Economy” (POLFREE). The Norwegian and the Danish part of this research received funding from Nordic Energy Research under the project “TOP-NEST Technology Opportunities in Nordic Energy System Transitions” (project number 42). References: Althaus, H.-J., Modern individual mobility (2011) Int. J. Life Cycle Assess., 17, pp. 267-269; (2018) Hvor Klimavenlige Er Elbiler Sammenlignet Med Benzin- Og Dieselbiler, , www.klimaraadet.dk, Danish Council for Climate Change: Copenhagen, Denmark, Available online: accessed on 1 July 2019; Geels, F.W., (2002) Understanding the Dynamics of Technological Transitions, , Ph.D. Thesis, Twente University, Enschede, The Netherlands; Rip, A., Kemp, R., Technological change (1998) Human Choice and Climate Change, pp. 327-399. , Rayner, S., Malone, E.L., Eds.; Battelle Press: Columbus, OH, USA; Cowan, R., Hulten, S., Escaping lock-in: The case of the electric vehicle (1996) Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang., 53, pp. 61-79; Klitkou, A., Bolwig, S., Hansen, T., Wessberg, N., The role of lock-in mechanisms in transition processes: The case of energy for road transport (2015) Environ. Innov. Soc. Transit., 16, pp. 22-37; Dijk, M., Wells, P., Kemp, R., Will the momentum of the electric car last? Testing an hypothesis on disruptive innovation (2016) Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang., 105, pp. 77-88; Sierzchula, W., Bakker, S., Maat, K., van Wee, B., The influence of financial incentives and other socio-economic factors on electric vehicle adoption (2014) Energy Policy, 68, pp. 183-194; Wesseling, J.H., Explaining variance in national electric vehicle policies (2016) Environ. Innov. Soc. Transit., 21, pp. 28-38; Flanagan, K., Uyarra, E., Laranja, M., Reconceptualising the ‘policy mix’ for innovation (2011) Res. Policy, 40, pp. 702-713; Veugelers, R., Which policy instruments to induce clean innovating? (2012) Res. Policy, 41, pp. 1770-1778; Rogge, K.S., Reichardt, K., Policy mixes for sustainability transitions: An extended concept and framework for analysis (2016) Res. Policy, 45, pp. 1620-1635; Rogge, K.S., Kern, F., Howlett, M., Conceptual and empirical advances in analyzing policy mixes for energy transitions (2017) Energy Res. Soc. Sci., 33, pp. 1-10; Borrás, S., Edquist, C., The choice of innovation policy instruments (2013) Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang., 80, pp. 1513-1522; Dijk, M.J., Backhaus, H., Wieser, R., Kemp Policies tackling the ‘web of constraints’ on resource efficient practices: The case of mobility (2019) Sustain. Sci. Pract. Policy, 15, pp. 62-81; Howlett, M., Rayner, J., Design principles for policy mixes: Cohesion and coherence in ‘New Governance Arrangements (2007) Policy Soc, 26, pp. 1-18; Kern, F., Howlett, M., Implementing transition management as policy reforms: A case study of the Dutch energy sector (2009) Policy Sci, 42, pp. 391-408; Nauwelaers, C., Boekholt, P., Mostert, B., Cunningham, P., Guy, K., Hofer, R., Rammer, C., (2009) Policy Mixes for R & D in Europe, , UNU-MERIT, University of Maastricht and United Nations University: Maastricht, The Netherlands; Oikonomou, V., Jepma, C., A framework on interactions of climate and energy policy instruments (2008) Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Chang., 13, pp. 131-156; Sorrell, S., Smith, A., Betz, R., Walz, R., Boemare, C., Quirion, P., Sijm, J., Haralampopoulos, D., (2003) Interaction in EU Climate Policy: Final Report, , SPRU: Brighton, UK; Painter, M., Central agencies and the coordination principle (1981) Aust. J. Public Adm., 40, pp. 265-280; Braun, D., Organising the political coordination of knowledge and innovation policies (2008) Sci. Public Policy, 35, pp. 227-239; Del Río, P., Interactions between climate and energy policies: The case of Spain (2009) Clim. Policy, 9, pp. 119-138; Gunningham, N., Grabosky, P.N., Sinclair, D., (1998) Smart Regulation: Designing Environmental Policy, , Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK; Guerzoni, M., Raiteri, E., Demand-side vs. Supply-side technology policies: Hidden treatment and new empirical evidence on the policy mix (2015) Res. Policy, 44, pp. 726-747; Del Río González, P., The interaction between emissions trading and renewable electricity support schemes: An overview of the literature (2006) Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Chang., 12, pp. 1363-1390; (2011) Interactions of Policies for Renewable Energy and Climate, , IEA. IEA: Paris, France; Antonioli, D., Borghesi, S., D’Amato, A., Gilli, M., Mazzanti, M., Nicolli, F., Analysing the interactions of energy and climate policies in a broad policy ‘optimality’ framework: The Italian case study (2014) J. Integr. Environ. Sci., 11, pp. 205-224; Palmer, K., Paul, A., Woerman, M., Steinberg, D., Federal policies for renewable electricity: Impacts and interactions (2011) Energy Policy, 39, pp. 3975-3991; Kivimaa, P., Kangas, H.-L., Lazarevic, D., Client-oriented Evaluation of ‘Creative Destruction’ in Policy Mixes: Finnish policies on building energy efficiency transition (2017) Energy Res. Soc. Sci., 33, pp. 115-127; Albrecht, J., Arts, B., Climate policy convergence in Europe: An assessment based on national communications to the UNFCCC (2005) J. Eur. Public Policy, 12, pp. 885-902; Schaffrin, A., Sewerin, S., Seubert, S., Toward a comparative measure of climate policy output (2015) Policy Stud. J., 43, pp. 257-282; Givoni, M., Macmillen, J., Banister, D., Feitelson, E., From policy measures to policy packages (2013) Transp. Rev., 33, pp. 1-20; (2018) Mål Og Virkemidler På Elbilområdet I Udvalgte Lande, , www.klimaraadet.dk, Danish Council for Climate Change: Copenhagen, Denmark, Available online: accessed on 1 July 2019; Vasseur, V., (2014) A Sunny Future for Photovoltaic Systems in the Netherlands? An Analysis of the Role of Government and Users in the Diffusion of An Emerging Technology, , Ph.D. Thesis, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Christensen, T.B., Wells, P., Cipcigan, L., Can innovative business models overcome resistance to electric vehicles? Better Place and battery electric cars in Denmark (2012) Energy Policy, 48, pp. 498-505; McKinsey, (2014) Electric Vehicles in Europe: Gearing up for A New Phase? Report of Amsterdam Roundtables Foundation and McKinsey & Company, , McKinsey: Maastricht, The Netherlands; Kley, F., Wietschel, M., Dallinger, D., Evaluation of European electric vehicle support schemes (2012) Paving the Road to Sustainability: Governance and Innovation in Low-Carbon Vehicles, , Nilsson, M., Hillman, K., Rickne, A., Magnusson, T., Eds.; Routledge: London, UK; (2016) Excise Duty Tables January, , http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/index_en.htm, Available online: accessed on 18 February 2016; EU Energy Prices, , https://www.energy.eu/fuelprices/, Available online: accessed on 18 February 2016; Norway Gasoline Prices, , http://www.globalpetrolprices.com/Norway/gasoline_prices/, Available online: accessed on 18 February 2016; (2011) Elektrisch Rijden in De Versnelling: Plan Van Aanpak 2011–2015 [Electric Driving in Acceleration: Work Plan 2011–2015], , RVO. Netherlands Enterprise Agency/Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO): Utrecht, The Netherlands; (2012) Prosjektrapport: Etter 3 År, , Transnova. Transnova: Oslo, Norway; (2016) Forsøgsordning for Elbiler, , http://www.ens.dk/klima-co2/transport/elbiler/forsogsordning-elbiler, Available online: accessed on 18 February 2016; (2009) Handlingsplan for Elektrifisering Av Veitransport: Rapport Fra Ressursgruppe Nedsatt Av Samferdselsdepartementet, p. 52. , Handlingsplan. Samferdselsdepartementet: Oslo, Norway; (2015), www.gronnbil.no, Available online: accessed on 18 November 2015; https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/dec/25/norway-leads-way-electric-carsgreen-taxation-shift, Available online: accessed on 1 July 2018; (2018) Flere Elbiler På De Danske Veje. Forslag Til Pejlemærker Og Virkemidler Til Elektrificering Af Personbilerne, , www.klimaraadet.dk, Danish Council for Climate Change, Available online: accessed on 1 July 2019; Haugneland, P., Kvisle, H., Norwegian electric car user experiences (2015) Int. J. Automot. Technol. Manag., 15, pp. 194-221; Ekeland, A., The electric car success in Norway: A dead-end or a way forward for climate policy? (2015) Paper for the Colloque International Recherche & Regulation, , https://www.eiseverywhere.com, Paris. Available online: accessed on 12 June 2015; Kok, R., van der Linden, F., Smokers, R., Verbeek, M., (2014) Evaluatie Autogerelateerde Belastingen 2008–2013 En Vooruitblik Automarktontwikkelingen Tot 2020 [Evaluation of Car-Related Taxes 2008–2013) and Outlook Car Market Trends to 2020], , Report Commissioned by Ministry of Finance; Policy Research Corporation: Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Rodrik, D., Green industrial policy (2014) Oxf. Rev. Econ. Policy, 30, pp. 469-491; van der Beesen, P., Munnix, S., Reitsma, S., (2014) Verzilvering Verdienpotentieel Elektrisch Vervoer in Nederland [Cashing the Revenue Potential of Electric Transport in the Netherlands], , Netherlands Enterprise Agency/Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO): Utrecht, The Netherlands; (2014) Belastingkortingen Voor Zuinige Auto’S: Afwegingen Voor Fiscaal Beleid [Tax Reduction for Fuel Efficient Cars: Trade-Offs for Fiscal Policy], , PBL. Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving: Den Haag, The Netherlands; Eurlings, C., van den Hoeven, M., (2009) Mobiliteitsbeleid [Mobility Policy], , Letter to Parliament; Ministry of Traffic & Water and Ministry of Economic Affairs: The Hague, The Netherlands; Wiebes, E., (2015) Autobrief 2, Letter to Pariament, , Ministry of Financial Affairs: The Hague, The Netherlands; Bakker, S., Maat, K., van Wee, B., Stakeholders expectations, interests, and strategies regarding the development and implementation of electric vehicles (2014) Transp. Res. A, 66, pp. 52-64; (2015) Forslag Til Lov Om Ændring Af Registreringsafgiftsloven, Brændstofforbrugsafgiftsloven Og Forskellige Andre Love, , DMT. Danish Ministry of Taxation: Copenhagen, Denmark; Borup, M., (2013) Electrical Mobility Case Study: Better Place–An Effort of Creating New Actor Roles and Infrastructure for Electric Car Mobility, p. 30. , TOP-NEST Working Paper; DTU: Lyngby, Denmark; (2015) Dk 2015: Smart Energy—Hovedrapport, , DE and Energinet. Danish Energy Association: Copenhagen, Denmark; (2014) Danskernes Syn På Elbiler. The Survey Was Administered to A Representative Sample of 1002 Respondents, , www.danskelbilalliance.dk, Available online: accessed on 29 January 2014; (2013) Vejledning Til Beregning Af Støtteberettigede Meromkostninger for Elbiler Og Ladeinfrastruktur, , Energistyrelsen. 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PY - 2020/1

Y1 - 2020/1

N2 - This paper evaluates how policy shaped the emergence of electric mobility in three countries, Norway, the Netherlands and Denmark, between 2010 and 2015. Whereas previous studies have looked at the effects of separate policy instruments, this paper gives insights in the interaction effects of instruments on the diffusion of battery electric cars between five policy areas. Based on analysis of synergetic, contradictory and pre-conditional effects, we find that an effective policy mix includes: fiscal incentives that mirror the actual carbon footprint of the respective vehicles; non-fiscal demand-side incentives; centrally financed and/or coordinated charging infrastructure; clarity regarding the choice of technology that will be supported. Moreover, development of a domestic, e-mobility-related industry and a high share of renewable energy strengthens the legitimization of e-mobility support. The findings help designing policy mixes in the transition to electric mobility.

AB - This paper evaluates how policy shaped the emergence of electric mobility in three countries, Norway, the Netherlands and Denmark, between 2010 and 2015. Whereas previous studies have looked at the effects of separate policy instruments, this paper gives insights in the interaction effects of instruments on the diffusion of battery electric cars between five policy areas. Based on analysis of synergetic, contradictory and pre-conditional effects, we find that an effective policy mix includes: fiscal incentives that mirror the actual carbon footprint of the respective vehicles; non-fiscal demand-side incentives; centrally financed and/or coordinated charging infrastructure; clarity regarding the choice of technology that will be supported. Moreover, development of a domestic, e-mobility-related industry and a high share of renewable energy strengthens the legitimization of e-mobility support. The findings help designing policy mixes in the transition to electric mobility.

KW - Carbon footprint

KW - Computer science

KW - Conditional effects

KW - Coordinated charging

KW - E mobilities

KW - E-mobility

KW - Electric vehicles

KW - Energy management

KW - Interaction effect

KW - National policies

KW - Policy evaluation

KW - Policy instruments

KW - Policy mixes

KW - Renewable energies

KW - Transition policy

KW - electric vehicles

KW - policy evaluation

KW - CLIMATE

KW - ENERGY

KW - transition policy

KW - ELECTRIC VEHICLES

KW - FRAMEWORK

KW - e-mobility

KW - LOCK-IN

KW - policy mixes

U2 - 10.3390/en13020475

DO - 10.3390/en13020475

M3 - Article

SN - 1996-1073

VL - 13

JO - Energies

JF - Energies

IS - 2

M1 - 475

ER -

Forks in the road to e-mobility: An evaluation of instrument interaction in national policy mixes in northwest Europe

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