Extracellular vesicles from fermented foods: sources, characteristics, functionalities, and future applications

This review provides a mechanistic synthesis of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in fermented foods, highlighting their emerging role as key bioactive mediators beyond traditional metabolites. EVs originate from both fermentative microorganisms and raw materials, carrying diverse cargos that enable intercellular and cross-kingdom communication. During fermentation, EV characteristics are dynamically modified through microbial-raw material interactions and environmental factors, which regulate EV biogenesis, cargo composition, and functional activity. Mechanistically, fermented food-derived EVs modulate host signaling pathways, thereby influencing immune responses and intestinal barrier function.