Crawling into a hole: Attachment insecurity, shame, and hikikomori symptoms in an adolescent population

Hikikomori is a severe and prolonged form of social withdrawal observed in young people across industrialized countries. This study examined associations among attachment insecurity, shame, and hikikomori symptoms and investigated their unique and relative contributions to one another to better understand their interconnected roles in social withdrawal. Participants were 137 non-clinical adolescents (54 males, 83 females; age range 12–22 years) who completed a survey. Hikikomori symptoms were assessed using the Dutch Hikikomori Questionnaire–25. Shame was measured using an abbreviated Experience of Shame Scale and the Guilt and Shame Experience Scale, and attachment insecurity was assessed with the Dutch Attachment Insecurity Assessment. Positive associations were found among attachment insecurity, shame, and hikikomori symptoms, with most effect sizes in the medium-to-large range. Findings indicated unique contributions of avoidant attachment insecurity and shame to hikikomori symptoms, while anxious attachment and hikikomori symptoms independently predicted shame. These results highlight the relevance of attachment-related processes and self-conscious emotions in adolescent social withdrawal.