Advanced Contactless Bioassembly Approaches: Leveraging Sound, Optical, and Magnetic Fields

The native structure of tissues and organs is characterized by a hierarchical architecture, where various cell types and extracellular matrix components are closely interconnected. The precise organization of these entities is crucial for ensuring the proper functionality of tissues and organs. Therefore, engineering the spatial complexity of living systems is essential not only to mimic in vivo architecture but also to govern the microenvironments where embedded cells reside. Bioassembly is an innovative toolset for in vitro modeling and regenerative medicine. It enables the precise assembly and patterning of cells, biomaterials, and bioactive substances into 3D structures using automated and cell-friendly fabrication methods. In this review, the focus is centered on three contactless bioassembly approaches that are driven by sound, optical, and magnetic field. These technologies are thoroughly discussed, with a particular emphasis on their mechanism of action and their applications.